Alpine Efficiency:
Combining speed and safety
Article by AAI guide and program coordinator Coley Gentzel
From the AAI Blog
In the mountains, speed is often thought of as safety. Reducing your exposure to the alpine elements and the darkness, as well as lessening the physical and mental fatigue that creep in towards the end of long days can greatly increase your margin of safety. There are other important advantages to moving quickly and efficiently on long routes as well, such as making it to the burger and beer joint before closing time!
AAI's Assistant Director, Mike Powers, has coined a saying that fits the following concepts exactly. He says, "Everything comes at a cost." This is applicable on so many levels in alpine climbing, and the concept should be at the forefront of a climber's mind in the pre-, during, and post-climb phases. For example, taking along a waterproof shell on a multi-pitch rock climb has a benefit. It will protect you and keep you warm if the weather turns bad. I think we would all agree this is a good thing. It also comes at a cost. The jacket is extra weight (more effort and time expended), and it takes up valuable space in a pack, which limits space for other important things and possibly requires a larger than otherwise needed pack.
Another example is bringing a super light 9.1 mil single rope on an alpine climb instead of a 10.5 mil fatty has these benefits: it will save weight and pack space, it is easier and faster to coil and stack, and it has less rope drag on long leads. The cost of bringing the 9.1 mil is that thinner ropes stretch more and cut easier, making a catastrophic fall more of a possibility. The question that climbers seeking increased efficiency need to ask is this: "Is the benefit worth the cost?"
Sub-factors to consider in trying to determine if the benefit is worth the cost would be 1) the likelihood of a situation, and 2) the consequences of the situation. If getting wet is a matter of safety and survival, and if the likelihood of getting wet is high, then the benefit would likely be well worth the cost. If getting wet is a matter of comfort, and the likelihood is small . . . I think you probably get the idea.
In the end, many of the decisions come down to a gamble. Hopefully the gamble is more like the calculated poker player sort of gamble rather than the Russian roulette version. In other words, the more times you make these decisions, analyze the factors, and learn from the outcomes, the better you will get at making future decisions, but there are no guarantees in mountaineering.
At this point you must be wondering why I am talking about the decision-making process in a piece that is supposed to talk about becoming more efficient on long routes. The relevance is this, efficiency and effectiveness start at home, in the packing process, and the decisions you make at home will either encourage or inhibit your ability to move quickly once you are on the climb.
I want to talk about efficiency in two different contexts, the first will be in strategy and gear selection, and the second will deal with on-route techniques.
Strategy and Gear Selection:
Speaking generally, your goal in picking a strategy, including selecting the equipment for your climb, should be to take the absolute minimum of gear you need to carry out your affairs safely. For different climbers this can mean different things, even on the same route under the same conditions. I have discussed the subject of "considering your objective" at length in two previous articles (Physical Conditioning for Mountaineering and Expeditions and Footwear). The applicable concepts would be knowing what you are up against with regard to mediums, conditions, and technical difficulty. When I say "strategy," I mean things like how long you plan to take, how you plan to approach and descend, how the leads will be broken up, etc. The concept of strategy most certainly applies to gear selection, and I will discuss that separately. So to summarize: do you home work on the route first. This means reading guidebooks, more than one if possible, talk to other climbers who have been there (more recently is better), look for reports from recent climbs on the internet, or call a guide service who operates on or near the route you are considering. Use the information that you glean from that process to determine your strategy and plan your gear.
Gear Selection
This topic can and has filled many volumes, and so I will try and stick to the basic concepts. As I said before, your goal should be to take the minimum about of gear needed to undertake your objective safely. For Dean Potter, safely linking up the Nose of El Cap and Half Dome means carrying six pieces of rock pro, half of a rope, shoes and a chalk bag. Notice I didn't list "partner." For me, safely taking on these routes would require a team of at least six climbers, a two to three week effort, a triple set of cams and stoppers, a mountain of aid gear, four loaded haul bags, and a 3000-foot line fixed at the summit just in case. Even then I would stand a good chance at failing, but I would be safe. My point here is that experience, skill, and knowledge all play parts in determining what sort of gear you will need for a given climb. Gear ranges from personal clothing and equipment to the rope and rack you plan to take. Selecting a rack for alpine climbing is the subject of a previous expert tips article (see How to Select an Alpine Rack), and I won't revisit the specifics here.
Once you have your strategy clearly defined and your tools for the job selected, you are ready to hit the road. The concepts described below for efficiency assume a two-person team on a long alpine route where partners are swinging leads.
I am going to break down efficiency into four categories or phases:
- Packing and Organization
- The Approach
- The Climb
- The Descent
Packing and Organization
When packing, figure out who is carrying what and how to split up the group gear. Get packed up at your house so that you can hit the trail running, literally if need be. A few minutes of organization and planning at home can put you ahead of other parties at the trailhead or at the base of the route as the other parties collect themselves and sort out their gear. Being first on a long alpine route increases your safety margin in several ways: it reduces the chance for party-induced rockfall and it guarantees you won't have to spend valuable time waiting for belay stations to clear or for a chance to pass. Predetermine who is going to lead the first pitch and when you are at the base of the climb, get into the belayer-climber roles quickly and carry out your respective duties of stacking the rope and racking up. Countless times I have walked right past parties as they prepare, repack, or sort gear and have as a result gotten first tracks, an open route, and in one case a first ascent in Alaska, which would not have happened unless we were packed, organized, and prepared ahead of time with a plan. It is not discourteous to safely and politely pass slower parties or to start ahead of folks if they are not ready to go. That of course doesn't mean they won't shoot you the stink eye or say bad things about your mother as you go by. Just know that it is their frustration with their own lack of planning and envy or yours that makes them mad, no flaw in your approach.
The Approach
On the approach, stay hydrated and avoid over-exertion. Eat before you are hungry, and drink before you are thirsty. Try not to sweat excessively - even better, don't sweat at all. Keep topos, maps, and route descriptions handy and easily readable. Don't carry more water than you need if you know you will be able resupply quickly and easily. Pee while walking. OK that was just a joke to see if you were paying attention, but hey, if you can pull it off it would save some time.
Before you start the route, go to the bathroom, change your layers for the anticipated activity level, eat and drink, and make sure things like food, water, and extra layers are quickly and easily accessible. This may mean putting things in your pocket and clipping them to your harness rather than putting them in the bottom of a pack. Look at the topo, and plan out as many pitches as you can so that you can quickly transition from following to leading and have an idea for what the next pitch involves.
The Climb
On the route, lead as quickly as you can while maintaining safety and control. Route-finding decisions should happen quickly and without error, and you should concentrate on making only the gear placements that you need to remain safe. When climbing together in easier terrain, make use of terrain features for anchors and use long runners. Shortening the rope often allows for easier communication and longer simul climb blocks than using a fully extended or close to fully extended rope. When building anchors, build them as fast as you can but don't compromise their quality or soundness. Cordellettes and double length slings make anchor-building a snap and serve many purposes on the mountain. When racking for the next lead, leave the follower with any gear you know you won't need for a given pitch. That way they have it when they start racking up for the next pitch and you are lighter on the lead. Using a gear sling makes passing gear back and for very fast, but personally I hate them. They get in the way of my climbing, and they are hard to keep organized. I have found that I climb faster and place gear more quickly when I rack on my harness. I use the same makes and models of gear for each climb and rack it the same every time. This system allows me to quickly and easily spot my placement and select the right size of gear instantly. More speed throughout the entire pitch to me is far more important than shaving a minute off of a transition by handing over a gear sling. Partners can trade cordellettes, locking biners, and hands-free belay devices to further increase speed. Eat and drink during these transitions or as they are about to happen. Eating and drinking shouldn't hinder the process, but rather occur simultaneously. Be meticulous about your rope management. Stack the rope in neat piles on ledges, coil it over your anchor tie-in starting with long loops and ending with shorter loops, and lead out on the correct side of the anchor to avoid twists.
The Descent
An alpine routes I have a hard time relaxing until I know I am out of harm's way. If I am able to stop for a minute to two, take in the scenery, and look around, it is usually at a belay while paying out rope for a leader or on a quick break on the summit before I get back into "go" mode for the descent. On the descent, again consider the gear you will need to carry out the descent safely. Having done your homework, you will know if your descent is a walk-off, down-climb, rappel, or some combination there of. Using some sort of pre-rigged anchor tie-in like a sling or daisy chain makes clipping into rappel anchors fast, easy, and safe. When rappelling, the first climber to rappel should be prepared to get the next station and start preparing the next rappel. The second climber to rappel should be cleaning backup pieces and be ready to go as soon as the first climber is off rappel. When both are at the next station, one person threads and feeds the rope while the other pulls it down. Throw your rappel ropes first starting with coils in the middle of the rope, and then the ends. In windy conditions, don't throw the ropes at all but rather feed them out from saddle bags or a similar coil as you rappel. Avoiding the big tangle saves a huge amount of time on the descent. Be prepared for transitions between walking, down-climbing, and rappelling, as well as transitions from one medium to another by having snow, ice, and rock gear easily accessible. If you don't know if you will need to rappel, or if you don't know if you will need the rope again, keep it handy using a backpack coil instead of putting it into a pack.
Above all else, feel a sense of urgency and hustle. Back at the trailhead, the pub, or our house is the place to relax, not when you still have miles of trail or thousands of feet of potentially tricky descending to do. It doesn't take many unplanned and under-prepared bivouacs to inspire that sense of urgency on all future climbs. Save yourself the hardship of that first unplanned bivouc and just and sleep naked in your backyard during a fall rainstorm. Picture that feeling every time you wrack up at the base of an alpine route, and I guarantee your climbing will be fast and effective. Don't forget to have fun in the process!
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Selecting Equipment for Waterfall Ice and Mixed Climbing
Article and photos by AAI guide Kurt Hicks
From the January 2008 edition of AAI's E-newsletter
Getting equipped for waterfall ice climbing, a highly equipment-intensive activity, used to be easy. You just had to buy some screws, technical ice tools, crampons, and wander around the mountains until you found a frozen cascade. Fortunately, recent advances in technology now enable us to climb and protect ice much more efficiently than in years past, but these advances have also made buying ice equipment much more complex. Here we will delve into some considerations for selecting equipment for waterfall ice and mixed climbing.
Screws
The base component of an ice climbing rack is the tubular ice screw. Modern screws feature high relief threads that greatly increase the holding power over older, pound-in, and fine-threaded designs. Look for a model that is tapered from the teeth to the hanger since they fracture less than non-tapered models. Models that are fully coated in stainless steel like those by Black Diamond (the Express) and Petzl rust much less, giving you piece of mind (even though the typical amount of rust is merely a cosmetic annoyance, not a structural hazard). Hangers that facilitate rapid placement with features like "turbo knobs" or wire handles are worth the extra cost because they are so much faster and easier to place.
Determining how many screws to bring depends on the difficulty of the climbing, how thick the ice is, and the length of the pitches. I typically bring around a dozen, using two or three for each belay. This leaves six to eight screws to protect the upcoming pitch. The newest ice screws are all rated to hold falls (the 10 cm screws used to be rated only as aid climbing protection and not for falls), so you should decide what length of screws to bring based on the thickness of the ice you'll be climbing. A typical rack usually consists of:
- One or two 10 cm screws (aka "stubbies")
- Four 13 cm screws
- Four 16 cm screws
- Two 22 cm screws
Example of a load-limiting sling used to reduce peak force on a screw placed in aerated ice.
Rock Protection for Mixed Climbing
It is often possible to protect ice climbs with supplemental rock protection if you are climbing an ice route directly adjoining rock. In addition to being fast to place, rock gear can inspire confidence when attacking hard sections of ice climbing.
Rock protection is also critical when climbing "mixed" routes, or routes that necessitate both rock and ice climbing in varying amounts. Depending on the ratio of ice to rock on the route, I adjust my rack accordingly. More ice means more screws; more rock means fewer screws and more rock gear.
A typical traditional mixed rack looks something like this:
- Four to ten ice screws
- One set of stoppers
- Two tri-cams (pink and red)
- Three to six pitons from knifeblade to 1/2" angle
- A few cams from 0.5" to 2"
- One to two ice pitons/hooks
The rock type dictates the exact composition of the rack. For limestone routes with lots of parallel cracks, I emphasize cams and pitons over stoppers since stoppers don't tend to place well in that type of crack. For routes on granite, conglomerates, or chossy/broken rock, I reintroduce the stoppers to the mix. Pitons are universally good. Ice pitons don't work well in ice, but are invaluable for driving into dirty cracks and frozen moss.
Traditional mixed climbing on "Mixed Master" (WI5, 5.8) in the Canadian Rockies.
Load Limiters, Slings, and Carabiners
Designed to reduce the peak impact force on a piece of protection, load-limiting slings, such as the Yates Screamer or Petzl Nitro, deserve a place on your rack. These quickdraw-like slings are designed to elongate when a high force is placed on them, thus lengthening the duration of the fall and resulting in less force being transmitted to the piece of protection holding the fall. I always place these on the first piece of protection off the belay and also on dubious pieces thereafter. For the remaining slings, I find that models composed of Spectra/Dyneema work better since they are lighter, more packable, and don't absorb water.
Carabiners are a great place to save weight on your rack. All non-locking carabiners should be wiregate models that are large enough to manipulate with gloves on. These are much lighter and are also much less susceptible to freezing shut and suffering from gate flutter. The Black Diamond Hotwire has long been the standard winter carabiner and composes a great deal of my rack. Locking carabiners (such as the Petzl Attache) should be large enough to use a munter hitch on in case your rope freezes or you drop your belay device.
Rope Systems
Because ice protection is generally less bomber than rock protection, falling on ice is is always a bad idea, and anything you can do to reduce impacts on protection is in your best interest. Rope systems can effect those impacts.
Rope systems for ice and mixed climbing have the same variability as protection. The simplest system is a single rope, usually 60 meters long and with a 9 to 10mm diameter. With a single rope, rope management is greatly simplified as it mimics the typical rock climbing setup, but it halves the length of any rappels you have to make. When used properly, double ropes (sometimes called "half ropes") with a diameter of 8.0 to 9.0 mm allow full-length rappels and can decrease the amount of rope drag (because you clip each rope into alternating protection) as well as impact force (because of greater stretch). Twin ropes, another type of rope system, are clipped into each piece of protection just like a single rope, but they offer full length rappels and increased redundancy (since there are two ropes in case one is cut over an edge, hit by an errant tool placement or crampon, or chopped by ice or rockfall). It should be noted that twin ropes result in more impact on protection pieces than either of the other two ropes systems. In rock climbing where protection for the most part is very sound, this isn't as much of a concern as in ice climbing where impact force can be a very bad thing. The last option is a single rope combined with a tag line. Generally speaking, the tag line, which is a 7mm nylon cord, serves as a pull cord for your single rope, thus allowing full-length rappels with less weight than a double rope system. No matter what rope system you choose, get dry treated ropes. They last longer (because the sheath is more resistant to wear), and they absorb less water than non-treated ropes.
The author using a single rope with a tag line, leashless tools,
and superlight shell jacket on Gibraltar Wall (WI4), British Columbia.
Boots:
There are a number of boots that work well for ice climbing. The key characteristic of a good ice climbing boot is fit. Find a model that minimizes or eliminates heel lift when standing on your toes and that is comfortable to wear all day while walking and climbing. Other important features are:
- A 3/4 or full length shank - This stiffens the boot sole to provide a solid platform while climbing.
- Insulation - to keep your toes warm
- Flexibility - for ankle mobility and walking comfort
- Welts - think of these as "benches" for your crampons to sit on.
Some great ice climbing boot models:
- Kayland: M11+, Apex XT
- Sportiva: Nepal Evo GTX, Trango Ice Evo, Batura
- Scarpa: Freney XT GTX and Summit GTX
For more information on choosing boots, check out this article: Footwear for Mountaineering and Climbing by my AAI program coordinator and Denali guide Coley Gentzel.
Crampons
The most important feature of crampons for ice climbing is their ability to fit onto your boots securely. Choosing between horizontal or vertical frontpoints can be challenging. For pure ice climbs, horizontal frontpoints offer more surface area and stability, especially in porous or aerated ice. Vertical frontpoints offer greater precision for technical ice and really shine on difficult, mixed climbs. An added bonus of vertical frontpoints is that replacement frontpoints are available, meaning that after a sharpening them over and over, you only have to replace the frontpoint and not the entire crampon.
These are the models that we have concluded are the best:
Scarpa Freney XT boots, Lowa Civetta boots (with Intuition Denali liner) with Grivel G12 crampons, Koflach
Degree boots with Black Diamond Cyborg Crampons, and Raichle 90 Degree boots with Petzl Dart crampons
Ice Tools
All modern ice tools climb well. The debate rages on about leashed versus leashless ice climbing and each has its merits. Each type of tool has different characteristics (swing, weight, balance, etc), so climb on lots of models and select the one that fits your swing style best.
I prefer to climb with a hammer on one tool and an adze on the other. Adzes are indispensable for clearing away large amounts of poor ice, chopping bivy ledges, or camming into cracks. Hammers are crucial for placing and removing pitons. The consequences of your tool popping out and the adze smashing into your face is more severe than a hammer, so beginners may find that using two hammers may be safer (i.e. you'll get a bruise instead of stitches).
The top leashed models are :
- Black Diamond: Viper and Cobra
- Petzl: Quark and Aztar
- Grivel: Matrix and Quantum
The top leashless models:
Helmet
Always wear a helmet when climbing ice. Period. I've seen too many people who would have gotten seriously hurt or killed if they hadn't been wearing one. Be sure your warm hat or balaclava fits underneath it.
Backpack
You have to get your gear to the route somehow. For ice "cragging" days, I choose something in the 35 to 40 liter size. A small "summit" style back like the Black Diamond Bullet or Magnum, Cilogear 30L, or Grivel Air Tech 28 are excellent for longer routes where carrying a parka, food, and water are critical for success. Find a model that doesn't affect your swing and that has a streamlined profile.
A full arsenal for a day of ice or mixed climbing. Top Row: Petzl Elios Helmet, Water bottle parka,
Petzl Tikka XP headlamp, first aid kit, Buff, Patagonia Grade VI jacket, Montbell Flatiron Parka
Middle Row: Black Diamond Express screws
Bottom Row: Black Diamond Cobra Ice tools, pitons, ice pitons, load limiter, sling, cordelette, nut
tool, stoppers, tricams, Black Diamond C3 cams, CCH alien cams, Black Diamond Camalots
Not shown: thermos/Jetboil, rope system, pack, boots, crampons
Other Essentials
In addition to everything mentioned above, I always have these other items squirreled away in my pack for every foray out on the ice.
- Harness. By using a model with adjustable leg loops, you can put it on after your crampons. Mine always has my trusty ATC-Guide belay device attached with its dedicated locking carabiner.
- Abalakov Tool. Otherwise known as a v-thread tool, these are indispensable for building rappel anchors in ice. A pocketknife for cutting cord is nice to have also. Check out the Petzl Multihook
- Headlamp. The days are short during the winter, so don't forget your headlamp! I prefer a high output LED model like the Petzl Tikka XP or Black Diamond Spot.
- A belay jacket. Either down or synthetic is fine. This jacket goes on over all my layers upon reaching the belay and comes off just before I start climbing. Be sure that the hood fits over your helmet. Check out the Wild Things Belay Jacket and the Patagonia DAS Parka.
- Superlight rain shell. I only put mine on when I'm starting up pitches that are dripping wet.
- Buff or balaclava. In addition to your 'beanie' hat, a thin insulating layer for your head is often the ticket for staying warm at belays and while climbing.
- Small file. Keeping your tools and crampons sharp greatly increases their effectiveness and ease of placement.
- Spare gloves. In addition to my climbing gloves, I always throw a spare pair in the bottom of the pack for when my main pair gets soaked. (For more information on glove systems, check out this article, Glove Systems for Mountaineering and Alpine Climbing).
- Nourishment. Foods high in fat content help keep you warm. Combine these with lots of water in a thermos (or bring a Jetboil to heat up water at belays) to help keep yourself toasty throughout the day. Think of it as gas for the tank.
- First Aid Kit. Bring enough supplies to bandage small lacerations (ice is sharp!), a splint, and some heat packs (to ward off frostbite on extremely cold days).
Enough talk about ice climbing. It's time pack up, head out, and get on some ice!
Recommended Reading:
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Ask a Guide! If you have questions about anything in this article, ask a guide! Write us at askaguide@aai.cc with your climbing-related questions and receive an answer from one of our guides.
Mountain Weather:
When to go for the summit
Article and all photos by AAI guide Alasdair Turner
From the September 2007 edition of AAI's E-newsletter
The answer to the question of whether or not to leave camp for the summit can sometimes be obvious, such as on a morning that greets us with high winds that knock us off our feet or with a flash of lightning that allows us to momentarily see our partner's face while still motionless inside a sleeping bag. However, it is much more difficult in less extreme scenarios. What should you do if you wake to a clear morning with high clouds and a light wind? Or what if on a windless morning, dense fog envelops the tent?
The weather must always be taken into account when leaving for a summit attempt. Unfortunately, weather changes, and in the mountains it often changes faster than we can react, causing potentially dangerous situations. By using a combination of simple weather knowledge, familiarity with local weather, and flexible schedules and routes, we not only increase our safety when going to the summit, but increase the chances that we will get there. (It goes without saying but I'll mention it as a side note anyway that awareness of weather must be combined with solid navigation skills, knowledge of self-rescue, and well-founded decision-making abilities to ensure the safest climbing trip possible.)
Weather patterns are completely different from one mountain range to another. Some ranges always give good warning of impending poor weather; others give none. It is beyond the scope of this article to try to explain weather patterns or list the different types of weather that are possible in the mountains. There are many good books on the market that offer pictures of different cloud types and give explanations of what they might suggest for short-term weather. Start by picking up one of these books and becoming familiar with what different types of clouds can signal. Without being able to identify some types of clouds, it can be difficult to predict short-term weather patterns.
Cumulus clouds rise over Camp Muir on Mt. Rainier, just two hours before a major thunderstorm hit the area.
Being prepared is one of the most important parts of any climbing trip. Your planning process should include acquiring a current weather report. In addition to getting the latest weather forecast before I leave for a trip, I always carry a small mp3 player with a built-in radio and use it every day for updates on the weather.
One important thing to remember about weather forecasts is that often they are created for population centers and don't necessarily describe the weather anticipated for your climbing location in the mountains. Accurate weather reports for mountain ranges often can be difficult to obtain. If you can only get one for lowlands nearby, keep in mind that when a moving air mass is confronted by mountains, it is lifted up and cooled in the process. If clear air cools to its saturation point - clouds form, and if cloud masses cool - rain may fall. Cloudy but dry weather in the lowlands may translate to wet weather in the mountains when it arrives.
In addition to my mp3 player, I also like to carry a barometer (or barometric altimeter), such as the Suunto Vector. Changing barometric pressure can signal changing weather. Rises in pressure and high pressure systems tend to bring more stable, dryer air. Drops in pressure and low pressure systems often signal a trend towards moist, cooler air. In the northern hemisphere, high pressure systems move in a clockwise direction and low pressure systems move in a counter-clockwise direction. Bear this in mind if you are looking at satellite imagery as part of your pre-trip weather planning process. Which direction a particular system is moving and where it is at in relation to a coast, body of water, etc. will make a big difference in what sort of weather - precipitation in particular - may be headed your way.
Remember, altimeters measure altitude by reading the barometric pressure. An increase in your altimeter signifies a drop in barometric pressure. For example, waking up the morning of a summit climb and finding that your barometric altimeter has you 200 feet closer to the summit than when you went to sleep is a sign that the pressure dropped during the night. It is always a good idea to keep track of barometric pressure changes over the course of a trip. Also, you must remember to recalibrate your altimeter regularly at known elevations! GPS units measure altitude by either barometric pressure OR by satellite triangulation, so make sure you know how your GPS measures altitude and read it accordingly (with adjustments for barometric pressure changes if necessary).
Often, high winds aloft can be a sign of more serious weather moving in soon. Lenticular clouds forming on a mountain top signal that wind is pushing moist air over the top of the peak. Snow plumes coming off a high ridge are also a way to tell if it is windy above your position or on the other side of a ridgeline or terrain feature.
Lenticular clouds near the summit of Mt. Baker, indicating a moisture system moving in.
Even if you have armed yourself with the knowledge and tools suggested above, the decision to leave for the summit is still not always an easy one. The first thing I consider in questionable weather is the commitment of the route. If the weather does turn bad, how difficult will it be to get down? If the route is very difficult to descend, consider taking a different route or waiting for the weather to improve.
Mountaineering is not a sport for people with non-flexible schedules. Earlier this summer on a planned climb of the North Ridge of Mt. Baker, I got several weather reports predicting incoming bad weather and observed a drop in pressure overnight. I woke up to perfect blue skies, light winds, and very warm temperatures. Although this would seem to suggest we leave for the summit and do the planned route, we chose not to climb the North Ridge due to the weather forecast. Instead, we headed for the standard route. Once we got to the summit the weather very quickly changed, and we descended in near whiteout conditions. If we had decided to do the North Ridge, we would have had no choice but to continue up in very poor, potentially dangerous conditions.
Questionable weather does not always deteriorate. I nearly always get up on time and am ready to go even when I got o bed with doubts about the weather. Oftentimes, there is no reason a climbing party can't complete the non-technical, early sections of a climb in poor weather with the hopes that the weather will improve. Several years ago in the Southern Picket range of the North Cascades, I woke up to what appeared to be very poor weather conditions. With the knowledge that we would likely have to turn around, we continued to the base of the technical climbing anyways. Once there, we were still not sure if the weather was going to improve or deteriorate. We sat down for a half hour and waited to see what the weather would do. It slowly improved, so we decided to go for the top. The views from the top that day were, and still are, some of my most memorable in all my trips to the Cascades.
Walking the summit ridge of McMillan Spire in the Southern Pickets in a very short weather window between storms.
Mountain weather is notoriously difficult to predict, and even with no signs of bad weather, climbers must always keep it in the back of their minds. As with many other things in climbing, the more you know, the safer you are likely to be, and by arming yourself with the knowledge mentioned in this article and always carrying a barometer and radio, you will increase your chances of getting to the summit. Additionally, becoming interested in and observant of how weather patterns affect the specific mountain range in which you climb can be your best tool against getting caught in a storm unexpectedly.
Finally, be sure you are always thinking about a contingency plan, your descent options, and the commitment factor while you are climbing so that you limit the risk of getting stuck in an unpredicted storm, unprepared and unaware. A major part of alpine climbing is limiting your exposure to the objective dangers, such as storms and foul weather. Going to the mountains prepared for any and all conditions and with an appropriate level of knowledge and decision-making ability for your objective, is the most effective way to limit those risks.
Recommended Reading on Mountain Weather:
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Ask a Guide! If you have questions about anything in this article, ask a guide! Write us at askaguide@aai.cc with your climbing-related questions and receive an answer from one of our guides.
How to Select an Alpine Rack
Article and all photos by AAI guide Erik Johnson
From the July 2007 edition of AAI's E-newsletter
Let's begin with a definition. Alpine climbing, in general, is: 1) a long way from the trailhead; 2) any combination of rock,
snow, glacier, and ice; and 3) lots of moderately technical terrain (up to 5.6). In other words, alpine climbs are long, complex, and are best done as quickly as possible. Weight
becomes a significant factor in reducing the time and energy spent on the approach, climb, and descent. Unfortunately, somewhat at odds with the "light is right" credo is the wide array
of gear that one needs to climb safely on rock, ice, snow, and glaciers.
This article is intended to provide a starting point in choosing what kind of and how much gear to bring on any given alpine climb. Every climb is of course different,
and the rack you bring will need to be adjusted for each. I have a basic rack from which I add or subtract gear, reflecting the characteristics of my climbing objective. Below is a discussion of each
of the components of a basic alpine climbing rack.
My complete alpine rack (rock and glacier), minus the emergency 'biner (see below).
- Camming Devices: Each cam has a range of crack sizes it fits, and that range depends on the make. Black Diamond Camalots are on the heavier side, but each size has a wider
range. Metolius Powercams and TCUs are lighter, but each size has a smaller range. Omega Pacific Link-Cams are a recent addition and have the widest range of any cam on the
market. Keep it small: no more than 5 units, and stick to the medium to large sizes. Nuts and pitons will almost always work in small cracks, and cams work better in larger cracks. Since
each cam has a range of crack sizes it fits, you don't want much overlap. In other words, balance overall weight with the ability to adequately protect a climb. 3 to 5 cams are a good start. My
basic rock rack consists of: Camalots #1, #2, and #3; Powercams #4 and #5; and a #2 Link-Cam. If the climbing is much harder than low 5th class (up to 5.6), I'll bring more
cams in order to adequately protect the crux pitches. Note: If you find yourself considering leaving a cam for a rappel anchor on the route, don't hesitate - leave whatever it takes
to create a well-built anchor - cams are cheap insurance policies.
- Chocks: Since chocks don't have much of a range of crack sizes each piece fits, more pieces are required to cover a range of crack widths. Black Diamond, Wild Country, DMM, Smiley, and many others make chocks. Their precise sizes and shapes vary a bit, but none is significantly better than the others. I'll bring a range of sizes from BD size #4 to #13 and a
mix of BD, DMM, Wild Country or whatever I have on hand, but no more than 10 to 12 total. I regularly find chocks on climbs and regularly leave them behind in anchors (I'll generally use
chocks that I find on a route, but usually not cams or carabiners).
- Pitons (Pins): Black Diamond makes the widest range and most available selection of good pins. BD Knifeblades, Bugaboos, and Lost Arrows are best for most climbs, and they fit where nothing else will. Pins are the first things to be cut from my rack if they're not needed. They are heavy, require a hammer, and permanently damage the rock. They are great emergency pieces for anchors. I'll bring them more often on winter routes than on summer routes - it's much easier to place these wearing heavy gloves after 20 hours on the go in very cold weather. There's something about the crescendoing ping-ping-ping that is very comforting when building an anchor in icy rock. I'll bring half dozen or so in a range of sizes and lengths, but no angle pitons (BD Angles) because they're heavy, and cams or chocks will work in the size of cracks that they fit.
- Hammer: If you're bringing pins, you've got to bring a hammer. To save weight, I'll bring a "north wall hammer" (an ice axe with a hammer end in place of an adze end) instead of carrying a normal
ice axe and a big-wall hammer. If you need to chop a step for some reason, the pick works almost as well as the adze.
My rock rack with the "north wall hammer."
- Carabiners: I'll restate that "light is right" here. Bringing way too many 'biners is a common affliction. Use wire-gated instead of solid-gated to save some weight, and don't
bring "loose 'biners" that don't have a specific purpose. Every 'biner should have a role on your rack - if it's not holding something, it should stay home. I'll group several pieces of
pro together on the same 'biner, except for cams, which I'll rack individually. BD Neutrino carabiners are great and very light, but they are hard to manipulate with gloves. BD Hotwires
are the slightly larger versions and are much easier to use in cold, snowy weather. Wire-gated 'biners also do not freeze shut or open nearly as often as solid-gated 'biners, and they are easier
to clip when wearing gloves.
- Slings: Shoulder-length (24") and double-shoulder-length (48") are the preferred sizes. Much of the pro I use on alpine routes is "natural," i.e. horns, chickenheads, flakes, spikes,
trees, or anything that I can either girth-hitch or slip-knot a sling around. Quickdraws are for the crags,
they're not very useful in the mountains. The sling material is at times critical. In snowy, icy, and wetter environments, nylon is not the best choice. It absorbs water, which decreases the
strength of the sling, makes it heavy, and can be very hard to use if it re-freezes. Spectra and Dyneema (or any number or other industry names for basically the same thing) is the sling material
to use. You can tell how much nylon is in a sling by how much color there is in it. Nylon can be dyed, while Spectra and Dyneema cannot and are always white. These slings are also very static -
they do not stretch as nylon does. This means that if they are not used properly, equipment failure can occur at lower loads than with nylon slings. For drier environments, plain nylon slings
work just fine; they last longer and can be safer. Use 9/16 inch tubular webbing for nylon slings. I'll bring 6 to 8 shoulder-length slings and 2 to 4 double-shoulder-length slings. I also
take at least one 'biner per sling, adding a second 'biner on just a few slings (for chock placements).
- Cordelettes: These are key pieces of equipment. 6mm is adequate thickness for alpine environments (because of generally lower forces during falls), but it is only marginally lighter
than 7mm, which is quickly becoming the standard thickness. Be aware that 6mm has a single strand breaking strength of around 2200 lbs, while many 7mm have 2500 lbs (exact strength depends on
manufacturer). My cordelettes are 25 to 30 feet long by 7mm. I carry two per person. This means that for a party of two, we would have four cordelettes total. This is because in
the event of having to rappel, perform self-rescue, or rig v-threads, chances are we are going to have to build a lot of anchors, and it's likely we'll have to use most of our own gear.
Using cordelettes keeps me from having to cut the rope for anchor material. These are a cheap way to be sure to always have good anchors, and at 25 to 30 feet each, I can cut a few lengths
off one and still be able to use it as a shorter cordelette.
A glacier rack, with pickets, ice axe, and ice screws pictured.
- Ice Screws: Any cro-mo steel ice screw is fine (BD, Petzl-Moser, Grivel), but stay away from the cheap titanium ones. If I'm only carrying a few, I have to know they'll
work when I need them to. I use 22cm whenever I can get away with it. In drier places with thinner ice, shorter screws might work better (13 to 17cm - any shorter and they're not very effective).
For climbs with moderate ice sections, six screws are fine: two screws per anchor, two anchors in at a given time, and two for pro. If the ice is more difficult, or if there is a significant ice
portion, bring more.
- Pickets: Bring at least one picket per climber if you'll be traveling on snow but not on a glacier. Bring more if you'll be on snow that is steeper and/or long. If traveling on a glacier, a two-person rope team needs two pickets per person. However, one picket per person for a three-person rope team is adequate. I use the two-foot model (MSR Coyote is the standard picket), and I usually rig it ahead of time with a 48" sling (or 7mm cord tied in a 48" loop) girth-hitched to the top hole for ease of racking. Pilfer 'biners from other parts of the rack for the snow section, as you'll not be using the cams on that part of the route.
- Emergency 'Biner: See photo below. This is a carabiner that holds some equipment that I don't generally use: a belay knife, 2 short 5mm prusik cords, and a
Petzl Tibloc ascender. I will also usually put another 6mm cord tied in a loop for a rappel backup on this 'biner.
- Pack, Axe, and Crampons: These are not part of the rack, but I'll make a short comment here. Get your pack as small as possible. My pack is always very overstuffed on the approach, but once on the climb it is reduced to the correct size as I am then using much of the gear that was in it. Do you really need crampons? Check conditions, but if you're doing any glacier travel or significant snow, bring them. Shorten up that axe! My alpine axe and north wall hammer are no more than 40cm.
A few last words about adding and subtracting things from an alpine rack. What range I am climbing in makes a big difference in what I bring.
Most climbs in the Cascades involve glacier travel, so a glacier rig and pickets are mandatory. On peaks where the rock is less than stellar, the rock gear can be thinned,
with maybe an extra pin or two thrown in. In the Bugaboos, the approaches involve a glacier crossing, but they are very mellow. The rock there is awesome and very big, so
I'll usually bring a full rock rack, but few to no ice screws or crampons. In the Alaska Range, I go heavy - I bring lots of everything because I fly into a base camp,
then pare down depending on what the conditions look like in person. In the Sierra I can, with a few exceptions, forego any snow and ice gear, because there's not much of
either by mid-summer, but I'll go a bit heavier on the rock gear.
The time of year also plays a role in deciding on a rack, as does the length of time I will be spending in the backcountry. If I am going in somewhere to a basecamp and climbing multiple routes, I'll bring more gear (backup gear). That way if I have to leave some gear on a route, I can still do more climbing and am not short crucial gear.
Lastly, do your research for your proposed route. There is a lot of information out there. Try to talk to someone who has just come out of the area
or even off that climb. I just came back from the Tetons of Wyoming to climb the Grand Teton, and before the climb, a friend told me "a #2 Camalot is invaluable, but a #3
is a waste of weight." He was right, I must have placed the #2 a dozen times, and never did I need a #3. We climbed much faster than the other four parties on the route and summited
2 hours ahead of them, partly due to our very light packs and rack.
Other than that, have fun, be safe, and don't forget the headlamp!
Erik Johnson on the Upper Exum Ridge (5.6) of the Grand Teton, Wyoming, in June, 2007.
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Ask a Guide! If you have questions about anything in this article, ask a guide! Write us at askaguide@aai.cc with your climbing-related questions and receive an answer from one of our guides.
Building YOUR Wilderness First Aid Kit
3 Tips to Consider
by Paul Nicolazzo, Director of the Wilderness Medical Training Center
From the May 2007 edition of AAI's E-newsletter
Whether you are traveling alone, taking part in an expedition, or responding as a member of a search & rescue (SAR) team, you will need an appropriate first aid kit. What you should take and how you should package it depends on many things. Here are three basic guidelines to help you build an effective kit:
Tip #1: Design your first aid kit with your trip in mind.
There is no generic first aid kit. The type and length of activity or expedition defines what you will want to have in your kit. Generally, the further you are from "help," the bigger your first aid kit will be. If you are on a very long trip, you will also need to consider whether or not you will need to set up a resupply. Also, the level of training of the medical "officer" will limit how much invasive equipment or Rx drugs you can carry.
First aid kits used by expeditions are conceptually very different from those used by rescue teams. Expeditions hope that they will NOT use their first aid kits and adhere to the principles of improvisation: they limit specialized items, focus on multipurpose equipment, and adapt expedition gear for medical uses (for example, using skis for splints and sleds for litters). As your ability to improvise increases, the size of your expedition first aid kit decreases. Rescue teams, on the other hand, know they WILL use their equipment and often carry specialized gear with them rather than scavenging their personal gear for improvisation.
It is important to examine the medical history of each team member; you may need to add special equipment or drugs to your kit. Pay attention to any allergies. If your experience in wilderness medicine is limited, look over Wilderness Medical Training Center's (WMTC) publications and consider carrying their Wilderness Medicine Handbook. You should also consider carrying SOAP Notes to thoroughly document your assessment and treatment of injured team members. You may download a copy of WMTC's Patient SOAP notes from the News page of their website for free (print on rite-in-the-rain paper) or purchase them directly from WMTC's webstore.
Tip #2: Organize your first aid kit effectively.
Packaging that is organized and well thought-out protects valuable and irreplaceable equipment. It permits fast and easy access to emergency gear without "vomiting" kit contents everywhere. Critical concepts to organization and packaging are:
- Use different colored compartments or packs. DO NOT use plastic bags as pack or compartment substitutes.
- Clearly label each compartment or pack: In many expeditions each expedition member carries their own personal care kit (blisters, sun screen, OTC meds, personal Rx meds, minor cuts & scrapes, etc.) leaving the expedition first aid kit for emergencies and minor trauma (more serious wounds and unstable injuries). This helps ensure that the expedition first aid kit is complete when it is needed.
- Laminate a contents list for each pack and indicate the intended use for each item.
- Seal soft goods in plastic to protect them from moisture. Use individual mini zip-locks or "Seal-a-Meal" freezer type packages.
- Tubes break. Repackage ointments into one and two ounce wide mouth (or larger depending on group size) Nalgene bottles.
- Liquids leak. Package liquids in one and two ounce narrow mouth (or larger depending on group size) Nalgene bottles.
- Use a weatherproof drug log for ALL medications so that you know who is using them and why.
- Train your expedition or team members to use your kit. Until they are trained, only you know why you assembled the kit as you did. Without specific training most people will not know how to use the equipment you have so thoughtfully assembled. Restrict access to compartments or packs that members are not trained to use.
Tip #3: Anticipate possible problems.
An effective first aid kit is built from a comprehensive "possible problem list." Divide your list into Basic Life Support or Trauma, Environmental, and Medical problems. Choose the problems that you will likely encounter and prioritize them. Once you are satisfied with your possible problem list, compile a list of first aid supplies needed to treat them; carry more of the stuff that you WILL need. Below is a basic checklist of potential problems; use this list as a guide as you build your trip-specific first aid kit.
Based in Mazama, Washington, the WMTC offers year-round courses in Wilderness First Responder (and WFR recert), Wilderness EMT, Wilderness First Aid, wilderness survival, technical rescue,
and risk management. Contact the WMTC by email at office@wildmedcenter.com or by phone at 509-996-2502 with questions on courses and availability.
Picture Savvy
-Improving your climbing photography-
article and photos by Matthew Anderson
MatthewAndersonPhoto.com
From the March 2007 edition of AAI's E-newsletter
As climbers, we are all quite familiar with photography. A camera rides shotgun on most climbing trips, whether it's a day at the crag or a multi-week high altitude expedition. When we're back at home surfing the Internet or browsing the local newsstand, we don't have to search hard to find images that make our palms sweat or pictures that make us yearn for big adventures. Our sport often takes us to far-flung locations where our lenses are able to feast on intriguing new cultures and dramatic new landscapes.
Why is it that a lot of the photos we take in those dramatic climbing locations just don't convey the excitement that we felt as we looked through the viewfinder? How can we improve our chances of capturing that telling image of adventure and achieve more reliable results with our camera?
While no one becomes a Galen Rowell or Ace Kvale overnight, here are a couple technique and equipment pointers that you may find useful as you work toward developing your skills as a photographer.
Keep the camera handy at all times.
This may seem obvious to most of us who have tried to capture candid moments or action with our cameras, but many a great shot is missed because the camera is inaccessible or the moment passes before the photographers can set the controls on their cameras. The best pictures you've ever seen were not made by photographers who just got lucky. Those pictures were made by anticipators who were prepared to capture something fleeting, and did so by seizing an opportunity at the "decisive moment."
How do I carry this thing?
I've seen many different systems put to use by climber-photographers in order to keep camera gear readily accessible. Every shooter will have to make decisions about cameras, bags, and accessory equipment based on the nature of their trip, their budget, and their interest level. It's good to study systems used by others and out of that observation create something that works for you. Bear in mind that whatever photographic equipment is chosen, it will be useless if you can't get to it without halting your team's progress and removing your backpack. Whether you're carrying a pocket point-and-shoot or a full fledged professional SLR (single lens reflex) with multiple lenses, be prepared to have the camera in hand in just a few seconds so you don't miss "that shot."
Capture those spontaneous, story-telling moments.
If you can get your shot without irritating your companions with a line like, "Can you do that again?" you'll preserve your subjects' candid interaction with you and avoid getting that "deer in the headlights" look from your subjects every time you lift the camera to your face. And spontaneity aside, don't shy away from non-traditional photographic conditions. If you're met with some rowdy weather, don't stow the camera away, tell the story. People will be amazed when they see pictures of your climbing partners working through difficult conditions.
Tell a story with your pictures.
Think of how your slideshow will look back home to someone who has no understanding of climbing trips. Photos of preparation, packing, and even training can be subjects that non-climbing friends easily understand and great segues into those gripping action shots later in your presentation. Don't stop shooting after reaching the summit. Many good mountaineering photos are made while going downhill. The background can often be much more dramatic than the hill while it's in front of you during the ascent. Back at camp, try to capture the satisfaction or exhaustion on the faces of your climbing partners.
Managing light.
Photography, described by its Latin word roots, literally means "recording or representing with light." If you want more consistent results, you will need to develop your understanding of and your ability to see and use light no matter what kind of camera you are using. In addition, you will need control over your camera's exposure functions. Fortunately, this is becoming more available on pocket cameras of recent design. Almost all SLR type cameras are equipped with various modes of exposure control. Take advantage of the fantastic early morning and late evening light while composing landscapes in addition to keeping the camera accessible during the daytime when all the action is likely to occur.
How do I meter snow scenes?
Many photographers are confused by their camera's erratic light meter readings while shooting snowy scenes. Remember that your camera's light meter does not see color, people, or mountains through the viewfinder. It just sees a rectangle, and must pick an average exposure level so that hopefully nothing will over or under expose. Because snow reflects many times as much light as, for instance, green grass, you will notice that following your meter's suggestions may often result in grayish, dark photographs of scenes that were brilliant and white. Overexposing a stop or two while shooting bright, snowy scenes will combat this tendency toward dark, underexposed photos. Remember to readjust your settings before heading into the tent to capture your climbing partners' camp antics.
To flash or not to flash?
More often than not, the sun will cast some degree of shadow onto your subject's face, unless they are lying around camp (toes to the sky) under a noon sun. Using your camera's onboard flash will often help equalize difficult exposure situations, such as those in which your composition includes both people and a surrounding landscape. Try shooting one frame with flash and one without, especially on a bright sunny day. This is a technique that many pros employ to help "fill in" the shadows on a person's face. Realize that it can be especially difficult to make the flash reach in under baseball caps. Try getting down low.
Climb a tree, dig a hole . . .
Everyone has seen thousands of photographs made at eye level. What would your subject look like from a worm's point of view? A well known photographer once told me that his most useful piece of photography equipment was his own two feet. Get a move on! Think about positioning your camera someplace different. Move to a different position and keep viewing your subject through the camera. Is your background getting better? When in doubt, get in close and fill the frame with your subject or a portion of them. Unused space in your frame just tells viewers that you were too lazy to move around.
Shoot it wide and shoot it long
Often we're tempted to pull back with our wide-angle zooms or lenses when we are surrounded by picturesque scenes. Try capturing both the wide-angle perspective and then move in for a telephoto "slice." Your telephoto (or zoom) lens will bring the background in closer and help you convey a sense of scale while compressing your scene together. Using your wide-angle will have the opposite effect, spreading the contents of your photos away from each other and increasing the feeling of depth in your picture. Alternating between wide-angle, mid range, and telephoto shots will liven up your slide show with a variety of perspectives.
Cold weather considerations for digital and film cameras:
- Digital cameras present two big obstacles for climbers on long and cold-weather trips: battery power and image storage space. The playback feature on your digital camera saps precious battery power as you review images in the tent during your three-week Denali expedition. Most digital cameras are powered by proprietary batteries that are very expensive, often difficult to come by, and tough to recharge in the backcountry. Bring all of your batteries into your sleeping bag at night and keep the charged extras in your mid-layer pockets during the day. Use your playback window to delete unwanted photos and make room for others, but be wary of weakening battery power. If you are shooting digital, consider purchasing a high capacity card (two or more gigabytes) to use on your longer trips. Some Mp3 players can also be used as digital storage space. Be careful about depending on additional battery powered accessories on a big remote trip. If that iPod runs out of juice and you were depending on it for photo storage, then you may be in trouble.
- Film cameras, though not as convenient as digital, can be easier to manage on long, cold trips such as those in Alaska. Consider using a film camera if it will be too difficult to maintain a battery charge, or too expensive to buy a high capacity memory card or storage device. If you're using film be careful while rewinding your film in super cold temperatures. Film can become brittle when the mercury drops, and forcing that stuck rewind wheel could cause your film to snap apart. Hopefully that doesn't happen on summit day!
What type of camera?
Not every photographer is going to benefit from spending a small fortune on a professional grade camera and lens system. If you're thinking about an upgrade, consider your own picture-taking behavior and heed not the pushy camera salesman. If you're unlikely to invest lots of time studying technique and camera functions, then a simple pocket camera with fewer controls will be less intimidating to you and result in a more enjoyable photography experience and better picture results. If you anticipate becoming engrossed in the art of space, light, and time, then perhaps you should compare the attributes of a few different traditional SLRs or DSLRs (the digital equivalent), which will provide added control and room for experimenting. For good reviews of digital cameras, I recommend the popular website: www.dpreview.com.
Light is right, or weight is great?
Consider the nature of your trip. Will too much camera gear slow you down and aggravate your companions? Are the pictures for posterity or are you hoping to publish a few of your images? What is the terrain like? High angle terrain may make it very cumbersome to deal with heavy camera gear. Lower angle routes may lend themselves better to camera accessories and additional photographic opportunities.
Get familiar with your gear.
Like climbing equipment, photography equipment is less effective if you are unaccustomed to its capabilities and limitations. Read that camera manual and familiarize yourself with the important functions. The quicker you are at handling the cameras controls, the better you'll be at catching those great shots.
Study good photography
Read up on photography technique and browse the work of seasoned pros. Many have online portfolios. Take note of good pictures and ask yourself, "What makes this shot so great?" Remember that good photography takes practice, patience, and some hard work. Nothing great comes easy, but hey, you knew that already - you're a climber for Pete's sake!
________________
About the author: Before joining AAI's guiding staff, Matt worked as a staff photographer at two Northwest newspapers. He has worked as a freelance photographer for the Associated Press, and his pictures have been published in several national magazines. More of his work can be viewed online at: www.MatthewAndersonPhoto.com.
Snow Locomotion: Should You Use Skis or Snowshoes?
By Dylan Taylor, AAI Instructor and Guide
From the January 2007 edition of AAI's E-newsletter
In the mountaineering courses and expeditions that we run at AAI, there are many instances where we must bring some form of snow travel gear. In places like the Sierra and Cascades (in winter and spring), and especially in the Alaska Range, we frequently travel on deep, unconsolidated snow, fragile sun crust, and sometimes on wet spring snow (which, while rock-hard when frozen, can be armpit-deep when thawed under a mid-day sun). All of these difficult snow conditions necessitate snow travel gear - either skis or snowshoes. We have to choose our equipment carefully because one or the other will be better depending on a lengthy list of criteria. These criteria may include (but are not limited to):
- Terrain type (steep, flat, glaciated, heavily timbered, rocky, lots of streams, etc.)
- Personal skill level or background
- Type of locomotion chosen by the rest of the group
- Goal of trip (expedition, personal trip, instructional course, summit climbs, etc.)
- Pack weight
- Anticipated snow conditions
- Distance to travel
I will address these criteria in later paragraphs, but first I want to briefly discuss some of the characteristics of modern ski and snowshoe equipment.
Skis
Skis are the most traditional, and in many ways the most "fun", method of snow travel. They are also the most difficult and potentially frustrating to use. Their uses are diverse: they may be appropriate for approaching a climbing objective, touring the backcountry, or descending powder slopes for pure joy. Ski equipment for mountaineering and backcountry use falls into a category called alpine touring, or "AT" (AT gear is also referred to as "ski-mountaineering" or "randonnée" equipment). It is made up of an integrated system of skis, boots, and bindings that allow the skier to ascend with a free heel, then lock down the heel and back of the bindings for the descent. For up-hill movement, the back of the binding is freed so that the boot and binding can hinge at the toe as the skier ascends, allowing for a normal "walking" action that cannot be accomplished with traditional downhill bindings. Prior to descent, the binding is locked into a fixed-heel position similar to any conventional downhill ski binding and providing similar control.
Most AT bindings are very versatile and can accept a wide range of boot types, including dedicated randonneé boots, downhill ski boots, or plastic mountaineering boots. As one might expect, the boots best suited for downhill skiing are the worst for climbing, and vice versa. The skis themselves may range from top of the line downhill (a.k.a. "alpine" skis) to super fat powder skis to short, ultralight ski mountaineering boards that are best suited for going uphill fast.
Climbing skins are an important part of the backcountry ski package. They are long strips of synthetic "skin" which allow the skis to slide forward but not backward. They are attached to the skis with reusable glue for ascending slopes, and are peeled off for the descent. They take a few minutes to put on and take off, but they save huge amounts of effort on the ascent.
The skis themselves may range from top of the line downhill (a.k.a. "alpine" skis) and super- fat powder skis to short, ultralight ski mountaineering boards that are best suited for going uphill fast. Because skis are generally more "high performance" than snowshoes, they require more skill and experience to use them properly. Skiing with a heavy pack and mountaineering boots is slow, tedious, and frustratingly difficult. It should only be done by those with adequate skills and fitness.
Some mountaineers have asked about the appropriateness of telemark ski gear. Many skiers enjoy telemark, or "freeheel" gear because it offers a fun, melodic, and traditional approach to the enjoyment of mountain glisse. Telemark equipment is perfectly appropriate for backcountry skiing in its own right (though it does suffer from some safety issues because the bindings are not releasable), but it is often a poor choice for approaching climbs and for general ski-mountaineering. The boots do not kick steps well, nor do they hold mountaineering crampons well. Furthermore, the vast majority of telemark bindings do not tour efficiently, due to a spring-loaded binding, nor do most of them offer the option of ski crampons (though companies like Black Diamond and Genuine Guide Gear do offer telemark crampons that mount onto the skis).
Snowshoes
Though they are relatively slow and offer less pleasure on the downhill, snowshoes offer the benefit of being the lightest, most compact, and easiest form of snow travel gear available. In a matter of minutes, most any novice can strap on a pair of snowshoes and be off and running. As any visitor to a modern mountaineering shop can attest, snowshoe technology has come along way since the fur-trapper tennis rackets worn in the days of yore. Modern snowshoes are lightweight, have aggressive crampon teeth for ascending and traversing steep slopes, and they attach securely to almost any boot.
Snowshoes come in two types. One is made of solid molded plastic (e.g. The MSR Denali) that is light, durable, and simple. The other is made by stretching a neoprene-type material (decking) between a rigid metal frame, such as some models offered by Atlas and Tubbs. Some brands of snowshoes can be bought in several lengths, allowing the user to customize the amount of flotation.
Many types of modern snowshoes work well for approaching climbs and for use on expeditions, but for this type of use shoppers should search for snowshoes that are narrow and relatively short. Also, snowshoes for this purpose need to have good traction: aggressive, built-in crampons that hinge while you walk, as well as a substantial amount of serrated rails and teeth on other parts, will help the snowshoes ascend and traverse steeper slopes. One final feature that may not be obvious at first: the best expedition snowshoes will have simple binding systems (often a selection of rubber straps that are easy to grab and pull with mittens on). Nylon webbing bindings, though secure, are not recommended for expedition use because they are more time consuming to adjust over large double boots, and the nylon often absorbs water and freezes.
For general use by the recreational snowshoer, snowshoes that have a large surface area and therefore offer plenty of flotation are optimal.
_________
Now that I have discussed the characteristics of backcountry skis and snowshoes, let's look at the proper application of each so that you can make the right choice for your next winter trip in the backcountry. Before I go any further, please be aware that I am biased: I am a skier at heart, and skiing is how I reap the most enjoyment out of a snowy slope. However, during certain times throughout a winter and spring, I occasionally choose snowshoes because they offer more benefits for specific circumstances.
Again, here is a list of considerations when making a choice between skis and snowshoes:
- Terrain type (steep, flat, glaciated, heavily timbered, rocky, lots of streams, etc.)
- Personal skill level or background
- Type of locomotion chosen by the rest of the group
- Goal of trip (expedition, personal trip, instructional course, etc.)
- Pack weight
- Anticipated snow conditions
- Distance to travel
Above all, the choice between skis or snowshoes should be a matter of what is safest for the user and for their group. For example, it could be potentially dangerous to take skis on a serious mountaineering objective where unfamiliarity with skis, heavy packs, and steep, tangled terrain could slow the group down or create a fall hazard.
Terrain type
Terrain type is very critical in my own decision-making. When the terrain is wide-open, such as on low-angled glaciers, broad slopes above tree line, or flat valley bottoms, travel on skis is speedy and efficient. However, snowshoes work better than skis on tight, steep, heavily forested approaches where the path is narrow, turns frequently, and crosses hazards such as steep stream banks and log bridges. Falling in a stream is not an option, but it is easy to do when wearing a heavy pack in thick brush while trying to break trail on skis (especially if you are not very skilled with them).
Skill level or background
Our skill level or background often affects our choice of gear. People who are already familiar with the use of skis in the backcountry usually take skis. People who are not usually take snowshoes. The exception, of course, is when a beginner wishes to learn new skills, and in that case, it's important to choose a mellow, low-commitment objective.
Type of locomotion chosen by the rest of the group
If traveling in a group, it is best to have all group members using the same form of snow travel equipment. Skiers and snowshoers travel at a different pace because of the glide offered by ski skins and the increased length of stride. This becomes even more critical if the group is roped together on glaciated terrain. For example, on the West Buttress of Denali, it is critical that each member of the rope team travel at the same speed in order to keep proper tension in the rope in order to reduce consequences in the event of a crevasse fall. This is almost impossible if some members are on skis and others are on snowshoes - and it is especially difficult when the rope team is descending steeper slopes.
Goal of trip
The goal of the outing can dictate the choice of gear. On a particular trip is it just as important to have fun along the way, cutting some turns, as it is to get from point A to point B? Or is arriving at the destination as quickly as possible or with the least possible energy expended most important? Some people would chose skis in the first case but snowshoes in the second, while expert skiers might prefer skis in both instances, depending the match of terrain and snow conditions with the proficiency of each team member. Choose the gear that best matches what everyone agrees is the primary objective.
Pack weight
Choose a method of snow travel that is appropriate for the amount of weight in your pack, given your skill level. Skiing down even the slightest grade with a heavy expedition pack is extremely difficult. Couple that with a sled and floppy mountaineering boots on your feet and it is easy to see why the vast majority of expedition climbers on Denali choose snowshoes over skis. For those that wish to take skis on expeditions, it isn't impossible, but it will most likely require that each climber make a commitment to a lightweight philosophy and approach by refining their equipment choices and eliminating most luxuries.
Anticipated snow conditions
What are the snow conditions the group is expecting to encounter? Either method of snow locomotion is appropriate for snow too deep or soft to walk on with boots only - but skis will always offer more flotation in soft snow than snowshoes because they simply have more surface area. However, snowshoes are a better choice for a thin, variable snowpack (where wind distributes snow into deep drifts, but leaves lots of cumbersome vegetation and rocks exposed). Less skilled skiers may also prefer snowshoes when the snow pack has a bad crust, is wet and heavy, or is extremely variable and difficult to ski.
Distance to travel
How far do you need to go? If the distance is short (a few hours to a single-day ice climbing objective, for instance), then the speed benefits offered by skis may be surpassed by the light weight and convenience of snowshoes. But if the distance you will travel is great [no comma] and/or there is a need to travel fast, skis can offer many advantages. They are obviously much faster on the downhill, and because AT bindings allow a long touring stride in addition to a few inches of glide with every stroke, skis are a bit faster on the uphill as well.
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The bottom line is that most people will find snowshoes easier to use - especially when packs are heavy and snow conditions and terrain are difficult. Skis are better suited for folks who are adept at using them, traveling light, planning to travel on appropriate terrain (glaciers, open bowls, etc), or who need to travel great distances quickly. But in any event, both choices offer great utility and a lot of personal reward. They are great tools for you to use to access the snow-covered backcountry.
Article by John Scripps, AAI Assistant Registrar,
with quotes from Seth Hobby, AAI Instructor and Guide
From the September 2006 edition of AAI's E-newsletter
Much is written and said about the importance of "going light." These commentaries most commonly arise in the context of marketing efforts and in declarations from leading climbers on the determining impact that weight has on their climbing outcomes. Neither comment on weight is very useful for the would-be buyer when it comes to sorting out price-benefit ratios or when deciding precisely how particular light-weight products fit into the final, important choices of what to bring on any given climb. While we can't do much to influence the notorious cost of lightweight gear, we can share some of the the technical knowledge and experience necessary for making smart decisions about what you decide to put in your backpack.
When venturing forth into the mountains, we bring clothes, food, and climbing hardware with us for safety and comfort, but bringing too much can both decrease our fun and compromise our safety by slowing us down when time is of the essence. To help guide us through this paradox, we've enlisted the help of Seth Hobby, an instructor and guide here at AAI who tells the climbers he works with that "the key to alpinism is simplicity." We want to show you what "going light" looks like in Seth's practice of alpinism by examining both the contents of his pack and the logic behind many of his gear choices.
Pictured above is Seth's pack, weighing in at a moderate 45 pounds but fully loaded for six days of alpine ice climbing in the North Cascades of Washington. His trip was to include some glacier travel, camping on snow, and steep ice climbing. Pictured below are the contents of Seth's pack. We hope that a review of the contents will help you make equally smart choices on what to bring and what to leave behind.
Key:
= Cooking/Food System
= Sleep System
= Clothing System
= Climbing Equipment
= Other items
Sleep System
Sleeping bag (already packed): A temperature rating between ten and twenty degrees works perfectly in most places, striking a balance between warmth and weight. If it gets much colder, which is rare in a tent, you can wear layers while you sleep. Down is preferable because it is lighter and more compressible. Concern about getting a down bag wet can be alleviated by storing it in one or two garbage bags inside your pack. Also, when space in one's backpack is at a premium, Seth notes that his fifteen-degree down bag fits in his helmet when fully compressed. He recommends a compression sack for that reason.
Sleeping pad: Regular or 3/4 length is all you need. The author happens to be 6'6" and uses a 3/4 length Thermarest. He and Seth both use their rope or pack (whichever is drier) to insulate/cushion their legs when sleeping on snow or rock. On overnight rock climbs, you can use this rope/pack combo in lieu of a pad to save even more weight. Inflatable pads should be folded and stored in one's pack to protect from punctures, and you should always carry a patch kit with you on trips just in case.
Tent: Seth's is a Black Diamond Firstlight. Weighing two lbs. 9 ozs. (1.16kg) and taking up minimal pack space, it's an ideal 3-season shelter. It isn't completely waterproof but it stands up well to moderate precipitation and wind, thanks to its low profile.
Lightweight Rain Tarp/Emergency Bivi Sack: Used in concert with the Firstlight to protect from rain. The tarp serves multiple uses: rain fly, cooking shelter, emergency bivi sack in case of injury or epic. (Seth uses an Integral Designs Guide SilTarp - weight 1 lb. or 454 grams).
Clothing System:
Puffy Jacket (Puffy for short): Similar to a sleeping bag, this insultating layer is an essential item that in some incarnations can also take up an excessive amount of space (especially if you buy one that is warmer than you need). Except in the coldest climates/climbing situations (such as at high altitude, at high latitude, or during the winter), a moderate temperature rating is all you need. Because you depend on the puffy for warmth and because of its likely exposure to the elements, synthetic insulation is preferable here. Down coats, by contrast, are worthless when wet and take a long time to dry. In sum, look for a weight that is appropriate to the climate where you'll be climbing (not simply the warmest product). The lighter the weight that will work for you, the better, because it will be more compressible than a warm coat and save space as well as many ounces. Compare Patagonia's Micro Puff Jacket (at 20.5 ozs. or 581 grams and) with their DAS Parka (at 29 ozs. or 822 grams).
Waterproof Layers - Top and Bottom: Seth doesn't carry the standard issue Gore-Tex pants and jacket - the heavy-duty kind you'd wear skiing in winter. His are lightweight, much more packable, and half the price. His jacket and pants are less durable, but his logic is that they'll only be worn a small percentage of the time anyway. If the weather gets really bad, most climbers typically either seek shelter or head back to the car.
Softshell Layer: What Seth refers to as his "action layer." Products filling this niche are breathable, quick drying, windproof, and highly water-resistant - they're made for climbing, in other words. Softshell materials have a much wider comfort range than Gore-Tex and will suffice as an outer layer when rain isn't a huge concern. Not pictured are Seth's "action pants," which he "never takes off on a trip." Weights: Patagonia Ready Mix Jacket 14.98 ozs. (425 grams); Patagonia Guide Pants 17.97 ozs. (510 grams).
Mid-layer: A fleece-type insulating layer that provides warmth. Patagonia's R1 is an example which weighs only 6.48 ozs. (184 grams).
Base-layer: Polypropylene tops and bottoms are buried under Seth's puffy jacket. His are from Patagonia, and each piece weighs 5.5 ozs. (156 grams).
Glove system: One waterproof shell or insulated glove with two sets of lighter-weight "action" gloves. The shell/insulated glove is used as a last resort and worn only when necessary, for added warmth on summit day or in excessively wet/cold conditions. The two lighter-weight gloves are worn in rotation, with the wet pair always kept on one's person to dry. Seth uses one pair of softshell-type gloves (the Black Diamond Drytool glove) and one polypropelene fabric glove (such as the Mountain Hardwear Powerstretch glove). Some guides even use Atlas Gloves, which are gardening gloves with a rubber grip. Seth packs his shell/insulated gloves in his down sleeping bag, because both items function as a last line of defense against cold and absolutely need to be kept dry.
Socks: Two pairs for six days, worn and dried in rotation like the action gloves. Some people bring along an extra pair for sleeping, storing the socks in their sleeping bag when not in use.
Boots: Leather, full shank, single boot. For a full treatment of the boot subject, please see last month's Expert Tips article.
Climbing Equipment:
Backpack: Be careful here. Lightweight packs (2-4 pounds or 906 grams-1.8 kg empty) only carry light loads comfortably ("45 lbs. or 20.4 kg and below", in Seth's case). Seth's is a Wild Things Andinista (3lbs 14oz or 1.76 kg). The pack isn't built to carry excessively heavy loads as it basically consists of thin padding on the shoulders and hips, a plastic frame sheet, and a single 4000 cubic inch compartment. Seth removed the pack's lid and some "excess" sewn-on features to shave even more weight. He lines his backpack with a garbage bag to keep everything nice and dry.
Rope: Seth's is a Beal Joker, a 9.1mm dry-treated rope that is marked at the halfway point for quick rappels, weight is 7lbs. (3.18 kg) at 60 meters. This rope is strong enough to hold a lead fall and light enough to bring on glacier traverses. Ropes in the 8mm range will hold crevasse falls, but have to be used in tandem to safely belay the leader on steeper ground. On Institute alpine and glacier programs, we typically use either the Joker or the Beal Stinger III which is a 9.4 mm dry treated rope weighing 7lbs. 13 oz. at 60 meters (3.54 kg).
Alpine Ice Rack:
- Picket - Just one if you plan to use one of the technical tools as an anchor. (See technical tools description).
- 6 ice screws - one 21cm or 19cm screw, the rest 17cm
- 4 shoulder-length Dyneema slings - Dyneema is thin, light, and very strong
- 2 double-length Dyneema slings
- 8 non-locking wire gate carabiners - Black Diamond Neutrinos and Hotwires.
- One quickdraw
- One cordelette
- V-thread
- Five locking carabiners
- (1 pulley would be added if the trip involved significant crevasse hazard)
Harness: Seth uses the Black Diamond Alpine Bod. Comfortable for walking, these harnesses are ideal for alpine climbs not involving a lot of hang time. Padded harnesses weigh more, but are much more comfortable to hang in. Evaluate your harness choice accordingly, and don't take one with features you donŐt need. The Alpine Bod weights 13.92 ozs. (395 grams).
Technical tools: Seth's are Petzl Aztar EXs. These are lightweight, dropped-pick tools designed for climbing steeping ice. Seth saves weight by using one as his glacier axe on lower angle terrain. He saves weight further by using one of his tools as an anchor, rather than bringing an extra picket. These weigh in at 1 lbs 1.62 ozs. (500 grams).
Crampons: New-matic designs work with the widest array of technical/rigid climbing boots.
Trekking Poles: They may seem like a luxury, but the added weight is more than made up for in the stress they take off of your legs and knees, especially when descending. Field maintenance is easier on poles with the "flick-lock" design.
Helmet: Light and strong. The HB Carbon Dyneema 10.57 ozs. (300 grams) and the Petzl Elios (Size 1 weighs 11.10 ozs. / 315 grams and Size 2 weighs 12.16 ozs. / 345 grams), are good choices.
Cooking/Food System:
Stove set: Seth's is a JetBoil, which is an integrated burner and mug set-up. These are light, fast, and efficient at cooking/boiling/melting, ideally suited for dehydrated, pouched, and "just add water" meals like the ones Seth has packed. The Jetboil PCS set weighs only 14.98 ozs. (425 grams).
Dinner: The one-gallon Ziploc bag on the right carries five dinners! As an affordable alternative to dehydrated meals, Seth brings along Tasty Bite dinners, tuna in a foil pouch (ideal for climbers and sold right next to the canned stuff), and Annie's mac and cheese.
Lunch: The one-gallon bag on the left holds six lunches, mostly breakfast bars, energy bars, and a bag of drink mix. When this photo was taken, Seth hadn't yet purchased his tortillas and cheese, but all told he thought his six-day food/drink stash would weigh under 5 pounds (2.27 kg).
Tea and coffee!
Breakfast: Pop tarts! Tasty and ready to eat!
Cookies!
*Extra Tip: Seth doesn't carry all his water on the hike in, as there are usually plenty of water sources (streams, snowfields, etc) both on the approach and higher in the mountains. A full Nalgene bottle weighs over 2 pounds - so just carry what you need, make sure you've done your research and know where the water sources are likely to be and how much water you will need to get you there.
Other Gear:
First Aid Kit: Well-stocked for the entire group.
Sundry Items (Not Pictured): glacier glasses, visor and bandanna (for sun protection), repair kit (w/ needle/thread, Thermarest repair kit, extra 2" buckle in case the one on your hip strap falls off or gets stepped on - what Seth refers to as a "showstopper"), sunblock, spoon (the #1 most forgotten item), and basic toiletries.
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We hope this quick look into a guide's pack will help you refine your approach to packing for alpine climbs and, hopefully lighten your loads in , the future. With a fully integrated system like Seth's and where redundancy is only present in the anchors that you build, your final pack weight for six days of alpine climbing should be under 45 pounds (not counting your rope and hardware). It's a great goal to strive for, and if you succeed, you will reap the benefits repeatedly in the many years and mountains that are in your future. Good luck!
